Product Code Database
Example Keywords: paint -undershirt $8
   » » Wiki: Science Fiction
Tag Wiki 'Science Fiction'.
Tag

Science fiction
Search for science fiction
 ( ) 

 C O N T E N T S 
Rank: 100%
Bluestar Bluestar Bluestar Bluestar Blackstar
  1. Wiki
  2. Comments
  3. Media

Science fiction (often shortened to sci-fi or abbreviated SF) is the of speculative fiction that imagines advanced and futuristic scientific progress and typically includes elements like information technology and , manipulations, space exploration, , parallel universes, and extraterrestrial life. The genre often specifically explores human responses to the consequences of these types of projected or imagined scientific advances.

Science fiction's precise definition has long been disputed among authors, critics, scholars, and readers. It contains many subgenres include hard science fiction, which emphasizes scientific accuracy, and soft science fiction, which focuses on social sciences. Other notable subgenres are , which explores the interface between technology and society, , which addresses environmental issues, and , which emphasizes pure adventure in a universe in which space travel is common.

Precedents for science fiction are claimed to exist as far back as antiquity. Some books written in the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment Age were considered early stories. The modern genre arose primarily in the 19th and early 20th centuries, when popular writers began looking to technological progress for inspiration and speculation. 's , written in 1818, is often credited as the first true science fiction . and H. G. Wells are pivotal figures in the genre's development. In the 20th century, the genre grew during the Golden Age of Science Fiction; it expanded with the introduction of space operas, literature, and .

Science fiction has come to influence not only literature, but also film, television, and culture at large. Science fiction can criticize present-day society and explore alternatives, as well as provide entertainment and inspire a sense of wonder.

Definitions
According to American writer and professor of biochemistry , "Science fiction can be defined as that branch of literature which deals with the reaction of human beings to changes in science and technology."

Science fiction writer Robert A. Heinlein stated that "A handy short definition of almost all science fiction might read: realistic speculation about possible future events, based solidly on adequate of the real world, past and present, and on a thorough understanding of the nature and significance of the scientific method."

American science fiction author and editor Lester del Rey wrote, "Even the devoted aficionado or fan—has a hard time trying to explain what science fiction is," and no "full satisfactory definition" exists because "there are no easily delineated limits to science fiction."

Another definition is provided in The Literature Book by the publisher DK: "scenarios that are at the time of writing technologically impossible, extrapolating from present-day science...,...or that deal with some form of speculative science-based conceit, such as a society (on Earth or another planet) that has developed in wholly different ways from our own."

(2025). 9781465429889, DK.

There is a tendency among science fiction enthusiasts to be their own arbiters in deciding what constitutes science fiction. David Seed says that it may be more useful to talk about science fiction as the intersection of other more concrete subgenres.

(2011). 9780199557455, OUP Oxford. .
American science fiction author, editor, and critic summed up the difficulty, saying "Science fiction is what we point to when we say it."

Alternative terms
American magazine editor, science fiction writer, and literary agent Forrest J Ackerman has been credited with first using the term sci-fi (reminiscent of the then-trendy term ) in about 1954. The first known use in print was a description of Donovan's Brain by movie critic Jesse Zunser in January 1954. As science fiction entered , writers and fans in the field came to associate the term with low-quality science fiction and with low-budget, low-tech .
(2025). 9781843535201, Rough Guides. .
By the 1970s, in the field, such as Damon Knight and , were using sci fi to hack-work from serious science fiction.

Australian literary scholar and critic Peter Nicholls writes that SF (or sf) is "the preferred abbreviation within the community of sf writers and readers."

Robert Heinlein found the term science fiction insufficient to describe certain types of works in this genre, and he suggested that the term speculative fiction be used instead for works that are more "serious" or "thoughtful".

History
Some scholars assert that science fiction had its beginnings in , when the distinction between and was blurred. Written in the 2nd century CE by the , the novel A True Story contains many themes and tropes that are characteristic of modern science fiction, including travel to other worlds, extraterrestrial lifeforms, interplanetary warfare, and artificial life. Some consider it to be the first science fiction novel. Some stories from the folktale collection The Arabian Nights, along with the 10th-century fiction The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter and 's 13th-century novel Theologus Autodidactus, are also argued to contain elements of science fiction.

Several books written during the Scientific Revolution and later the Age of Enlightenment are considered true works of . 's (1627), 's Somnium (1634), Athanasius Kircher's Itinerarium extaticum (1656),

(2025). 9783823367925, BoD. .
Cyrano de Bergerac's Comical History of the States and Empires of the Moon (1657) and The States and Empires of the Sun (1662), Margaret Cavendish's "The Blazing World" (1666),
(2025). 9781770480353, Broadview Press. .
(2025). 9780313335914, ABC-CLIO. .
's Gulliver's Travels (1726), 's Nicolai Klimii Iter Subterraneum (1741) and 's Micromégas (1752).Khanna, Lee Cullen. "The Subject of Utopia: Margaret Cavendish and Her Blazing-World". Utopian and Science Fiction by Women: World of Difference. Syracuse: Syracuse UP, 1994. 15–34.

and considered Johannes Kepler's novel Somnium to be the first science fiction story; it depicts a journey to the Moon and how the Earth's motion is seen from there.

(1977). 9780385130882, Doubleday.
Kepler has been called the "father of science fiction".

Following the 17th-century development of the novel as a , 's (1818) and The Last Man (1826) helped to define the form of the science fiction novel. has argued that Frankenstein was the first work of science fiction.

(2025). 9780755100682, House of Stratus.
Edgar Allan Poe wrote several stories considered to be science fiction, including "The Unparalleled Adventure of One Hans Pfaall" (1835) about a trip to the Moon.Tresch, John (2002). "Extra! Extra! Poe invents science fiction". In Hayes, Kevin J. The Cambridge Companion to Edgar Allan Poe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 113–132. .

was noted for his attention to detail and scientific accuracy, especially in the novel Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas (1870). In 1887, the novel El anacronópete by Spanish author Enrique Gaspar y Rimbau introduced the first .La obra narrativa de Enrique Gaspar: El Anacronópete (1887), María de los Ángeles Ayala, Universidad de Alicante. Del Romanticismo al Realismo : Actas del I Coloquio de la S. L. E. S. XIX, Barcelona, 24–26 October 1996 / edited by Luis F. Díaz Larios, Enrique Miralles.El anacronópete, English translation (2014), www.storypilot.com, Michael Main, accessed 13 April 2016 An early French/Belgian science fiction writer was J.-H. Rosny aîné (1856–1940). Rosny's masterpiece is Les Navigateurs de l'Infini ( The Navigators of Infinity) (1925) in which the word astronaut (astronautique in French) was used for the first time.Arthur B. Evans (1988). Science Fiction vs. Scientific Fiction in France: From Jules Verne to J.-H. Rosny Aîné (La science-fiction contre la fiction scientifique en France; De Jules Verne à J.-H. Rosny aìné) . In: Science fiction studies, vol. 15, no. 1, p. 1-11.

Many critics consider H. G. Wells to be one of science fiction's most important authors,

(1988). 9780893701741, Borgo Pr.
or even "the Shakespeare of science fiction". His novels include The Time Machine (1895), The Island of Doctor Moreau (1896), The Invisible Man (1897), and The War of the Worlds (1898). His science fiction imagined , biological engineering, , and . In his works, he predicted the advent of , , , satellite television, , and something like the World Wide Web.

Edgar Rice Burroughs's novel A Princess of Mars, published in 1912, was the first of his thirty-year planetary romance series about the fictional ; the novels were set on Mars and featured John Carter as the .Porges, Irwin (1975). Edgar Rice Burroughs. Provo, Utah: Brigham Young University Press. . These novels were predecessors to young-adult fiction, and they drew inspiration from European science fiction and American fiction.

One of the first novels, We, was written by the Russian author and published in 1924.Brown, p. xi, citing Shane, gives 1921. Russell, p. 3, dates the first draft to 1919. It describes a world of harmony and conformity within a united . The novel influenced the emergence of dystopia as a .

In 1926, published the first American science fiction magazine, . In its first issue, he provided the following definition:

In 1928, E. E. "Doc" Smith's first published novel, The Skylark of Space (co-authored with Lee Hawkins Garby), appeared in Amazing Stories. It is often described as the first great .

(2025). 9780060846756, Eos.
That same year, Philip Francis Nowlan's original story about , Armageddon 2419, also appeared in Amazing Stories. This story was followed by a Buck Rogers , the first serious science fiction comic.

is a novel written in 1930 by the British author . A work of innovative scale in the science fiction genre, it describes the fictional history of humanity from the present forward across two billion years.

In 1937, John W. Campbell became the editor of Astounding Science Fiction magazine; this event is sometimes considered the beginning of the Golden Age of Science Fiction, which was characterized by stories celebrating scientific achievement and progress. The "Golden Age" is often said to have ended in 1946, but sometimes the late 1940s and the 1950s are included in this period.Nicholls, Peter (1981) The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction, Granada, p. 258

In 1942, began the Foundation series of novels, which chronicles the rise and fall of galactic empires, and also introduces the concept of psychohistory.

(2025). 9781499569827, CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.
(1980). 9780385155441, Doubleday. .
The series was later awarded a one-time for "Best All-Time Series". Theodore Sturgeon's novel More Than Human (1953) explored possible future ."Time and Space", Hartford Courant, 7 February 1954, p.SM19Aldiss & Wingrove, Trillion Year Spree, , 1986, p.237 In 1957, the novel by the writer and presented a view of a future interstellar civilization; it is considered one of the most important Soviet science fiction novels.

In 1959, Robert A. Heinlein's novel Starship Troopers marked a departure from his earlier juvenile stories and novels. It is one of the first and most influential examples of military science fiction, and it introduced the concept of .

(1987). 9780809313747, Southern Illinois University Press. .
The German space opera series , written by various authors, started in 1961 with an account of the first ; the series has since expanded in space to multiple universes and in time by billions of years. It has become the most popular book series in science fiction to date.Mike Ashley (14 May 2007). Gateways to Forever: The Story of the Science-Fiction Magazines from 1970–1980. Liverpool University Press. p. 218. .

During the 1960s and 1970s, New Wave science fiction was known for embracing a high degree of experimentation (in both form and content), as well as a highbrow and self-consciously "literary" or "artistic" sensibility.

(1992). 9780820314495, University of Georgia Press. .
(2025). 9780786485765, McFarland.

In 1961, Stanisław Lem's novel Solaris was published in Poland.Peter Swirski (ed), The Art and Science of Stanislaw Lem, McGill-Queen's University Press, 2008, The novel dealt with the theme of human limitations, as its characters attempted to study a seemingly intelligent ocean on a newly discovered planet.Stanislaw Lem, Fantastyka i Futuriologia, Wedawnictwo Literackie, 1989, vol. 2, p. 365 Benét's Reader's Encyclopedia, fourth edition (1996), p. 590. Lem's work anticipated the creation of and , , , , and artificial intelligence (including swarm intelligence); his work also developed the ideas of necroevolution and artificial worlds.

(2025). 9788389738929, Wydawnictwo Kurpisz.

In 1965, the novel Dune by imagined a more complex and detailed future society than had most previous science fiction.

(2025). 9780415192040, Routledge.
In 1967 , began a series called Dragonriders of Pern .Dragonriders of Pern, ISFDB. Two novellas included in the series' first novel, Dragonflight, led McCaffrey to win the first or award given to a female author. Publishers Weekly review of Robin Roberts, Anne McCaffrey: A Life with Dragons (2007). Quoted by Amazon.com . Retrieved 16 July 2011.

In 1968, Philip K. Dick's novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? was published. It is the literary source of the Blade Runner .Sammon, Paul M. (1996). Future Noir: the Making of Blade Runner. London: Orion Media. p. 49. . Published in 1969, the novel The Left Hand of Darkness by Ursula K. Le Guin is set on a planet where the inhabitants have no fixed gender. The novel is one of the most influential examples of social, feminist, or anthropological science fiction.Stover, Leon E. "Anthropology and Science Fiction" Current Anthropology, Vol. 14, No. 4 (Oct. 1973)Reid, Suzanne Elizabeth (1997). Presenting Ursula Le Guin. New York, New York, USA: Twayne. , pp=9, 120Spivack, Charlotte (1984). Ursula K. Le Guin (1st ed.). Boston, Massachusetts, USA: Twayne Publishers. ., pp=44–50

In 1979, Science Fiction World magazine began publication in the People's Republic of China. It dominates the Chinese science fiction magazine market, at one time claiming a circulation of 300,000 copies per issue and an estimated 3–5 readers per copy, giving it a total readership of at least 1 million people—making it the world's most popular science fiction periodical.

In 1984, 's first novel, , helped to popularize and the word , a term he originally coined in the 1982 .Fitting, Peter (July 1991). "The Lessons of Cyberpunk". In Penley, C.; Ross, A. Technoculture. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. pp. 295–315 In the same year, Octavia Butler's short story "" won the Hugo Award for Best Short Story. She went on to explore themes of racial injustice, global warming, women's rights, and political conflict.Pfeiffer, John R. "Butler, Octavia Estelle (b. 1947)." in Richard Bleiler (ed.), Science Fiction Writers: Critical Studies of the Major Authors from the Early Nineteenth Century to the Present Day, 2nd edn. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1999. 147–158. In 1995, she became the first science fiction author to receive a MacArthur Fellowship.

In 1986, the novel Shards of Honor by Lois McMaster Bujold began her . 1992's novel by predicted immense social upheaval due to the information revolution.

In 2007, 's novel The Three-Body Problem was published in China. It was translated into English by and published by in 2014; it won the Hugo Award for Best Novel in 2015, making Liu the first Asian writer to win the award.

Emerging themes in late 20th- and early 21st-century science fiction include the following:

Recent trends and include , ,

(1998). 9781556343360, Steve Jackson Games.
and mundane science fiction.

Film
One of the first recorded science fiction is A Trip to the Moon from 1902, directed by French Georges Méliès. It influenced later filmmakers, offering a different kind of and . Méliès's innovative and techniques were widely imitated, and they became important elements of the cinematic medium.
(2008). 9780813544755, Rutgers University Press. .

The 1927 film Metropolis, directed by , is the first science fiction film. SciFi Film History – Metropolis (1927) – Though most agree that the first science fiction film was Georges Méliès' A Trip to the Moon (1902), Metropolis (1926) is the first feature length outing of the genre. (scififilmhistory.com, retrieved 15 May 2013) Though not well received in its time, it is now ranked as one of the best films ever made.

In 1954, Godzilla, directed by Ishirō Honda, started the of science fiction film; this subgenre features large creatures in any form, usually attacking a major city or engaging other in battle.

The 1968 film , was directed by and based on a novel by Arthur C. Clarke. The film improved on the largely offerings to date in both scope and quality, and it influenced later science fiction films.In Focus on the Science Fiction Film, edited by William Johnson. Englewood Cliff, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1972.

The original Planet of the Apes movie, directed by Franklin J. Schaffner and based on the 1963 French novel La Planète des Singes by , was also released in 1968. The film vividly depicts a post-apocalyptic world in which intelligent apes dominate humans.Russo, Joe; Landsman, Larry; Gross, Edward (2001). Planet of the Apes Revisited: The Behind-The Scenes Story of the Classic Science Fiction Saga (1st ed.). New York: Thomas Dunne Books/St. Martin's Griffin. . The film received both popular and critical acclaim.

In 1977, began the series with the film later called " ." The series, often called a space opera, became a worldwide phenomenon and the third-highest-grossing film series of all time.

Since the 1980s, science fiction films, along with , , and films, have dominated Hollywood's big-budget productions. Escape Velocity: American Science Fiction Film, 1950–1982, Bradley Schauer, Wesleyan University Press, 3 January 2017, page 7 Science fiction films often with other genres. Some examples include ( , 1982), family ( E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial, 1982), ( Enemy Mine, 1985), ( , 1987; , 1999), (, 2008; Big Hero 6, 2014), Western ( Serenity, 2005), ( Edge of Tomorrow, 2014; , 1999), ( Jupiter Ascending, 2015; Interstellar, 2014), ( Minority Report, 2002), ( Ex Machina, 2014), drama ( Melancholia, 2011; Predestination, 2014), and ( Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind, 2004; Her, 2013).Science Fiction Film: A Critical Introduction, Keith M. Johnston, Berg, 9 May 2013, pages 24–25. Some of the examples are given by this book.

Television
Science fiction and have consistently had a close relationship. Television or similar often appeared in science fiction long before television itself became widely available in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Science Fiction TV, J. P. Telotte, Routledge, 26 March 2014, pages 112, 179

The first known science fiction television program was a 35-minute excerpt of the play RUR, written by the Czech playwright Karel Čapek, broadcast live from the BBC's studios on 11 February 1938.

(2025). 9780813124926, University Press of Kentucky. .
The first popular science fiction program on American television was the children's adventure serial Captain Video and His Video Rangers, which ran from June 1949 to April 1955.

The original The Twilight Zone series, produced and narrated by , ran from 1959 to 1964. (Serling also wrote or co-wrote most of the episodes.) The series featured , suspense, and as well as science fiction, with each episode being a complete story.

(2025). 9781550227444, ECW press.
have ranked it as one of the best of any .

The series , while intended as and only running for one season (1962–1963), predicted many inventions now in common use: flat-screen , newspapers on a -like , , , , home , and more.

In 1963, the series premiered on BBC Television with a time-travel theme. The original series ran until 1989 and was revived in 2005. It has been popular globally and has significantly influenced later science fiction TV.

Alongside Doctor Who there are other British sci-fi dramas which are broadcast in the 1970s are UFO (1970–1971), The Tomorrow People (1973–1979), (1975–1977) and Blake's 7 (1978–1981).

Other notable programs during the 1960s included The Outer Limits (1963–1965), Lost in Space (1965–1968), and (1967).British Science Fiction Television: A Hitchhiker's Guide, John R. Cook, Peter Wright, I.B.Tauris, 6 January 2006, page 9Gowran, Clay. "Nielsen Ratings Are Dim on New Shows". Chicago Tribune. 11 October 1966: B10.Gould, Jack. "How Does Your Favorite Rate? Maybe Higher Than You Think." New York Times. 16 October 1966: 129.

The original series, created by , premiered in 1966 on and ran for three seasons.

(2007). 9780520250796, University of California Press. .
It combined elements of and . Only mildly successful at first, the series gained popularity through syndication and strong fan interest. It became a popular and influential franchise with many films, television shows, novels, and other works and products.Roddenberry, Gene (11 March 1964). Star Trek Pitch , first draft. Accessed at LeeThomson.myzen.co.uk.
(1996). 9780671536107, Pocket Books.
The series (1987–1994) led to six additional live action Star Trek shows: (1993–1999), (1995–2001) , (2001–2005), (2017–2024), (2020–2023), and (2022–present); additional shows are in some stage of development.

The V premiered in 1983 on NBC.Bedell, Sally (4 May 1983). "'V' SERIES AN NBC HIT". The New York Times. p. 27 It depicted an attempted conquest of Earth by . , a comic science fiction series, aired on between 1988 and 1999, and on Dave since 2009. , which featured and conspiracy theories, was created by Chris Carter and broadcast by Fox Broadcasting Company from 1993 to 2002, and again from 2016 to 2018.

Stargate, a film about ancient astronauts and interstellar , was released in 1994. The series Stargate SG-1 premiered in 1997 and ran for 10 seasons (1997–2007). Spin-off series included Stargate Infinity (2002–2003), Stargate Atlantis (2004–2009), and Stargate Universe (2009–2011).

Other 1990s series included Quantum Leap (1989–1993) and Babylon 5 (1994–1999). The channel, launched in 1992 as The Sci-Fi Channel, specializes in science fiction, supernatural horror, and .

The space-Western series Firefly premiered in 2002 on Fox. It is set in the year 2517, after humans arrive in a new star system, and it follows the adventures of the renegade crew of Serenity, a " Firefly-class" spaceship. The series began a five-season run in 2013, focusing on a woman who takes on the identity of one of her genetically identical clones. In late 2015, Syfy premiered the series The Expanse to great critical acclaim—an American show about humanity's colonization of the Solar System. Its later seasons were aired through Amazon Prime Video.

Social influence
Science fiction's rapid increase in popularity during the first half of the 20th century was closely tied to public respect for science during that era, as well as the rapid pace of technological innovation and new .Astounding Wonder: Imagining Science and Science Fiction in Interwar America, John Cheng, University of Pennsylvania Press, 19 March 2012 pages 1–12. Science fiction has often predicted scientific and technological progress. Some works imagine that this progress will tend to improve human life and society, for instance, the stories of Arthur C. Clarke and . Other works, such as H.G. Wells's The Time Machine and 's Brave New World, warn of possible negative consequences.The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy: Themes, Works, and Wonders, Volume 2, Gary Westfahl, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2005

In 2001 the National Science Foundation conducted a survey of "Public Attitudes and Public Understanding: Science Fiction and ". The survey found that people who read or prefer science fiction may think about or relate to science differently than other people. Such people also tend to support the and efforts to contact extraterrestrial civilizations.

(1982). 9780877031734, Univelt.
wrote that "Many scientists deeply involved in the exploration of the (myself among them) were first turned in that direction by science fiction."

Science fiction has predicted several existing inventions, such as the , , and . In the 2020 TV series Away, astronauts use a Mars rover called to listen intently for a landing on . In 2022, scientists actually used InSight to listen for the landing of a .

Science fiction can act as a vehicle for analyzing and recognizing a society's past, present, and potential future social relationships with the other. Science fiction offers a medium for and a representation of and differences in social identity. described science fiction as "cultural wallpaper".

(1986). 9780575039438, Victor Gollancz.

This broad influence can be seen in the trend for writers to use science fiction as a tool for advocacy and generating cultural insights, as well as for educators who teach across a range of academic disciplines beyond the natural sciences. Scholar and science fiction critic George Edgar Slusser said that science fiction "is the one real international we have today, and as such has branched out to , interactive media and on to whatever new media the world will invent in the 21st century. Crossover issues between the and the are crucial for the century to come."

As protest literature
Science fiction has sometimes been used as a means of . 's novel Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949) is an important work of dystopian science fiction.
(1996). 9780061810886, Harper Collins.
The novel is often invoked in protests against governments and leaders who are seen as . 's film Avatar (2009) was intended as a protest against , specifically the European colonization of the Americas. Science fiction in Latin America and Spain explores the concept of .

, artificial humans, human , intelligent , and their possible conflicts with human society have all been major themes of science fiction since the publication of Shelly's novel (or earlier). Some critics have seen this tendency as reflecting authors' concerns over the social alienation seen in modern society.Androids, Humanoids, and Other Science Fiction Monsters: Science and Soul in Science Fiction Films, Per Schelde, NYU Press, 1994, pages 1–10

Feminist science fiction poses questions about social issues such as how society constructs , the role reproduction plays in defining , and the inequitable political or personal power of one gender over others. Some works have illustrated these themes using in which gender differences or gender power imbalances do not exist, or in which gender inequalities are intensified, thus asserting a need for feminist work to continue.

(2016). 9781137430328, Palgrave Macmillan.

fiction (or cli-fi) deals with issues of climate change and . University courses on and environmental issues may include climate change fiction in their , and these issues are often discussed by other media beyond science fiction fandom.

Libertarian science fiction focuses on the and implied by right libertarian philosophies with an emphasis on and , and in some cases . Robert A. Heinlein is one of the most popular authors of this subgenre, including his novels The Moon is a Harsh Mistress and Stranger in a Strange Land.

Science fiction comedy often and present-day society, and it sometimes makes fun of the conventions and clichés of more serious science fiction.The Animal Fable in Science Fiction and Fantasy, Bruce Shaw, McFarland, 2010, page 19

Sense of wonder
Science fiction is often said to inspire a sense of wonder. Science fiction editor, publisher, and critic wrote that "Science fiction's appeal lies in combination of the rational, the believable, with the miraculous. It is an appeal to the sense of wonder."Hartwell, David. Age of Wonders (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1985, page 42)

Carl Sagan wrote about growing up with science fiction:

In 1967, Isaac Asimov commented on changes occurring in the science fiction community:Asimov, Isaac. 'Forward 1 – The Second Revolution' in Ellison, Harlan (ed.). Dangerous Visions (London: Victor Gollancz, 1987)

Study
The field of science fiction studies involves the assessment, interpretation, and of science fiction , , , , , and . Science fiction study the genre to better understand it and its relationship to science, technology, politics, other genres, and culture at large.

Science fiction studies began around the turn of the 20th century, but it was not until later that science fiction studies solidified as a discipline with the publication of the academic journals Extrapolation (1959), (1972), and Science Fiction Studies (1973), and the establishment of the oldest organizations devoted to the of science fiction in 1970, the Science Fiction Research Association and the Science Fiction Foundation. The field has grown considerably since the 1970s with the establishment of more , , and conferences, as well as science fiction -granting programs such as those offered by the University of Liverpool.

Classification
Science fiction has historically been subdivided into hard and soft categories, with the division centering on the feasibility of the science. However, this distinction has come under increased scrutiny in the 21st century. Some , such as and , have observed that stories focusing explicitly on , , , and tend to be considered hard science fiction, while stories focusing on , , , and the tend to be considered soft science fiction (regardless of the relative rigor of the science).

defined hard science fiction as stories "where the works", but he pointed out that this definition identifies stories that often seem "weirdly dated", as scientific shift over time. dismissed the traditional definition of hard science fiction altogether, instead stating that it was defined by characters striving to solve problems "in the right way–with determination, a touch of stoicism, and the consciousness that the is not on his or her side."

Ursula K. Le Guin also criticized the traditional contrast between hard and soft science fiction: "The 'hard' science fiction writers dismiss everything except, well, physics, astronomy, and maybe . , , —that's not to them, that's soft stuff. They're not that interested in what human beings do, really. But I am. I draw on the social sciences a great deal."

Literary merit
Many critics remain skeptical of the of science fiction and other forms of , though some mainstream authors have written works claimed by opponents to be science fiction. wrote a number of scientific romance novels in the Gothic literature tradition, including (1818). was a respected American author whose works have been argued by some to contain science fiction premises or themes.
(1991). 9780872497221, University of South Carolina Press. .

Other science fiction authors whose works are widely considered to be "serious" literature include (especially Fahrenheit 451 and The Martian Chronicles), Arthur C. Clarke (especially Childhood's End),Barlowe, Wayne Douglas (1987). Barlowe's Guide to Extraterrestrials. Workman Publishing Company. .Baxter, John (1997). "Kubrick Beyond the Infinite". Stanley Kubrick: A Biography. Basic Books. pp. 199–230. . and Paul Myron Anthony Linebarger (using the pseudonym ).Gary K. Wolfe and Carol T. Williams, "The Majesty of Kindness: The Dialectic of Cordwainer Smith", Voices for the Future: Essays on Major Science Fiction Writers, Volume 3, Thomas D. Clareson editor, Popular Press, 1983, pages 53–72. , who was later awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, wrote a series of five science fiction novels, (1979–1983); these novels depict the efforts of more advanced species and civilizations to influence less advanced ones, including humans on Earth.

(1997). 9780791433836, State University of New York Press. .
(1994). 9780006547211, Flamingo.

David Barnett has indicated that some novels use recognizable science fiction tropes, but they are not classified by their authors and publishers as science fiction; such novels include (2006) by , Cloud Atlas (2004) by David Mitchell, The Gone-Away World (2008) by , The Stone Gods (2007) by Jeanette Winterson, and Oryx and Crake (2003) by . Atwood in particular argued against categorizing works such as the Handmaid's Tale as science fiction; instead she labeled this novel, Oryx and Crake, and as speculative fiction, and she criticized science fiction as "talking squids in outer space.", "Bits and Pieces", SFX magazine No. 107, August 2003.

In his book The Western Canon, literary critic includes the novels Brave New World, Stanisław Lem's Solaris, 's Cat's Cradle, and The Left Hand of Darkness as culturally and aesthetically significant works of Western literature, though Lem actively spurned the label science fiction. in Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America FAQ, "paraphrasing " who was SFWA President 1973–74

In her 1976 essay "Science Fiction and Mrs Brown", Ursula K. Le Guin was asked, "Can a science fiction writer write a novel?" She answered that "I believe that all novels ... deal with character... The great novelists have brought us to see whatever they wish us to see through some character. Otherwise, they would not be novelists, but poets, historians, or pamphleteers."

Orson Scott Card is best known for his 1985 science fiction novel Ender's Game; he has postulated that in science fiction, the message and intellectual significance of the work are contained within the story itself—therefore the genre can omit accepted literary devices and techniques that he characterized as or literary games.

In 1998, wrote an titled "Close Encounters: The Squandered Promise of Science Fiction" in the . In this essay, he recalled the time in 1973 when 's novel Gravity's Rainbow was nominated for the and was passed over in favor of Arthur C. Clarke's novel Rendezvous with Rama; Lethem suggests that this point stands as "a hidden tombstone marking the death of the hope that SF was about to merge with the mainstream." In the same year, science fiction author and physicist wrote that "SF is perhaps the defining genre of the twentieth century, although its conquering armies are still camped outside the of the literary citadels."

Community
Authors
Science fiction has been written by authors from diverse cultural and geographical backgrounds. Among submissions to the science fiction publisher , men account for 78% and women account for 22% (according to 2013 statistics from the publisher). (See full statistics) A controversy about voting slates for the 2015 highlighted a tension in the science fiction community between two things: a trend toward increasingly diverse works and authors being honored by awards, and a reaction by groups of authors and fans who preferred more "traditional" science fiction.

Awards
Among the most significant and well-known awards for science fiction are the for , presented by the World Science Fiction Society at , and voted on by fans; the for literature, presented by the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America, and voted on by the community of authors; the John W. Campbell Memorial Award for Best Science Fiction Novel, presented by a jury of writers; and the Theodore Sturgeon Memorial Award for , presented by a jury. One notable award for science fiction films and TV programs is the , which is presented annually by The Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy, and Horror Films.

There are other national awards, like Canada's Prix Aurora Awards, regional awards, like the presented at for works from the U.S. Pacific Northwest, and special interest or awards such as the for art, presented by the Association of Science Fiction & Fantasy Artists, or the World Fantasy Award for fantasy. Magazines may organize reader polls, notably the .

Conventions
Conventions (often abbreviated by fans as cons, such as ) are held in around the ; these cater to a local, regional, national, or international membership. General-interest conventions cover all aspects of science fiction, while others focus on a particular interest such as or . Most science fiction conventions are organized by volunteers in non-profit groups, though most media-oriented events are organized by commercial promoters.Mark A. Mandel (7–9 January 2010). Conomastics: The Naming of Science Fiction Conventions.

Fandom and fanzines
Science fiction fandom emerged from the letters column in magazine. Fans began writing letters to each other, and then assembling their comments in informal publications that became known as . Once in regular communication, these fans wanted to meet in person, so they organized local clubs. During the 1930s, the first science fiction conventions gathered fans from a larger area.

The earliest organized online fandom was the SF Lovers Community, originally a in the late 1970s, with a text that was updated regularly. In the 1980s, groups greatly expanded the circle of fans online. In the 1990s, the development of the increased online fandom through devoted to science fiction and related in all media.

The first science fiction fanzine, The Comet, was published in 1930 by the Science Correspondence Club in Chicago, Illinois. As of 2025, one of the best known fanzines is Ansible, edited by , winner of numerous . Other notable fanzines to win one or more Hugo awards include File 770, Mimosa, and . Artists working for fanzines have often risen to prominence in the field, including Brad W. Foster, , and Joe Mayhew; the Hugo Awards include a category for Best Fan Artists.

Elements
Science fiction elements can include the following:

International examples
Subgenres
While science fiction is a genre of fiction, a science fiction genre is a subgenre within science fiction. Science fiction may be divided along any number of overlapping axes. Gary K. Wolfe's Critical Terms for Science Fiction and Fantasy identifies over 30 subdivisions of science fiction, not including (which is a ).

Related genres
See also
  • Outline of science fiction
  • History of science fiction
  • Timeline of science fiction
  • The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction
  • Extrasolar planets in fiction
  • Hard science fiction
  • List of fictional robots and androids
  • List of science fiction comedy works
  • List of science fiction and fantasy artists
  • List of science fiction authors
  • List of science fiction films
  • List of science fiction literature with Messiah figures
  • List of science fiction novels
  • List of science fiction television programs
  • List of science fiction themes
  • List of science fiction universes
  • Science fiction comics
  • Science fiction libraries and museums
  • Science in science fiction
  • Soft science fiction
  • Time travel in fiction

General and cited sources
  • . Billion Year Spree: The True History of Science Fiction, 1973.
  • Aldiss, Brian, and . , revised and updated edition, 1986.
  • . New Maps of Hell: A Survey of Science Fiction, 1958.
  • Barron, Neil, ed. (5th ed.). Westport, Conn.: Libraries Unlimited, 2004. .
  • . Reading by Starlight: Postmodern Science Fiction. London: Routledge, 1995. Print.
  • Science Fiction: The Illustrated Encyclopedia. London: Dorling Kindersley, 1995. .
  • and Peter Nicholls, eds., The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction. St Albans, Herts, UK: Granada Publishing, 1979. .
  • and Peter Nicholls, eds., The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction. New York: St Martin's Press, 1995. .
  • Disch, Thomas M. The Dreams Our Stuff Is Made Of. New York: The Free Press, 1998. .
  • . Archaeologies of the Future: This Desire Called Utopia and Other Science Fictions. London and New York: Verso, 2005.
  • . Locating Science Fiction. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2012.
  • Raja, Masood Ashraf, Jason W. Ellis and Swaralipi Nandi. eds., The Postnational Fantasy: Essays on Postcolonialism, Cosmopolitics and Science Fiction. McFarland 2011. .
  • Reginald, Robert. Science Fiction and Fantasy Literature, 1975–1991. Detroit, MI/Washington, D.C./London: Gale Research, 1992. .
  • Roy, Pinaki. "Science Fiction: Some Reflections". Shodh Sanchar Bulletin, 10.39 (July–September 2020): 138–42.
  • (1977). 9780195021745, Oxford University Press. .
  • . Metamorphoses of Science Fiction: on the Poetics and History of a Literary Genre, New Haven : Yale University Press, 1979.
  • Weldes, Jutta, ed. To Seek Out New Worlds: Exploring Links between Science Fiction and World Politics. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003. .
  • Westfahl, Gary, ed. (three volumes). Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2005.
  • Wolfe, Gary K. Critical Terms for Science Fiction and Fantasy: A Glossary and Guide to Scholarship. New York: Greenwood Press, 1986. .

External links

:
Page 1 of 1
1
Page 1 of 1
1

Account

Social:
Pages:  ..   .. 
Items:  .. 
Click to view the UPC Scavenger App on google play.

Navigation

General: Atom Feed Atom Feed  .. 
Help:  ..   .. 
Category:  ..   .. 
Media:  ..   .. 
Posts:  ..   ..   .. 

Statistics

Page:  .. 
Summary:  .. 
1 Tags
10/10 Page Rank
5 Page Refs
3s Time